时间：2023-02-28 15:57:46
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为了提高学生听说能力，小学语文课提供了许多口语训练的素材和形式。因此，可以充分利用课文的优势，构建口语交际模式的阅读课。经过探讨，我总结了以说为主线的模式：预习自说──朗读仿说──讨论互说──总结评说。
1．预习自说。阅读总建立在学生对课文预习的基础上，而预习情况反馈，提供了交流学情空间，拓展新知。应让学生自说预习中读懂了哪些，还有哪些疑难。
2．朗读仿说。阅读课就是教师指导下的读书课，训练任何一种语言能力都离不开读，特别是“对话”可让学生自选角色朗读，读中感悟真情。通过模仿表演反复训练，自然提高口语表达能力。
3．讨论互说。阅读是一种个性色彩极强的活动，通过对课文感知，学生有了“第一印象”，教师放手让学生解疑问难，小组讨论，交流汇报，学生畅谈对课文的理解，创造乐说、会说、能说的氛围。
4．总结评说。阅读教学中对问题探究，课文朗读，习题训练等都要指导小结评说。让学生在分析、梳理、归纳的思维训练中培养口语表达的具体性，严密性，提高表达的水平。值得注意的是要给足时间，让学生尽情倾吐内心的感受，实现同学间的信息沟通与启迪。
这一教学模式把阅读和听说融为一体，学生说中感知课文，说中感悟课文，读中积累语言，说中品析课文，真正学会语言。
二、开展活动，创设口语交际的氛围
学生在实践活动中进行动手、观察、体验、想象、创新。开展活动，能丰富口语交际的内容，掌握口语交际的方法技巧，提高听、说、交往的能力。
1．引导“玩”中说。学生的自我表述只有在自由自在的空间才得以孕育、诞生。如《踩气球真有趣》活动课，让学生在草地围圈而坐，蓝天白云，绿树草地，鸟鸣蝉叫，孩子们回到大自然的境界里，进入最佳氛围，学生互相追逐，出现许多不同的有趣场面。这时引导学生自主看说，选择观察对象，摄取说的素材；生生互评，师生互评（评语言，评内容，评仪态）。这种自由、和谐、愉快的氛围成了学生表现自我的最佳“土壤”。
2．引导“做”中说。凡学生自己经历或亲手做的事，说起来总是那么绘声绘色，感情丰富。如《比比谁的手巧》活动课，课前让学生利用废弃材料自制小作品，做做说说；课中介绍作品，互相评说；课后开展销会，产品推销，创设交际过程。
3．引导“议”中说。教师根据训练要求，设计话题，让学生根据话题，发表看法。提出见解，如上《我心中的老师》口语交际课，可设计：①创设情境，激发说趣；②老师示范，提出要求；③小组讨论，相互介绍；④相互采访，自由评议。
三、关注社会，寻找口语交际的源头
生活是口语训练的主要源泉。因此，教师要主动帮助学生巧搭“说”的舞台，创设富有时代感和浓郁的生活情趣的语境，让学生在多姿多彩的“舞台’冲，观察表达。如开展“爱”的系列口语交际活动可作如下设计：
系列一：《爱我家庭，从真做起》说话课，以学生孝敬长辈为材料进行同桌互说，汇报评说，培养学生关心长辈的真情。
系列二：设计《爱我校园，从小做起》说话课，以学生做好事为材料进行练说，激发学生爱校的情感。课前开展“我们的校园我们爱”的活动，课中分小组汇报交流自己所见所闻。同时在别人说话中参与评价，最后去采访做好事的同学。从而使口语交际成为交流心得，增进情感的教育活动。
系列三：开展“爱我环境，从近做起”调查活动。让学生参与社会实践活动，了解家乡环境的污染情况，明确环保重要性。
课前阅读有关环境知识书报，使学生心有环境。并按水源、空气、居民小区三方面调查记录。课中以水源为例，明确说话要求，先说污染，再说危害，最后说想法，同桌互说，巩固要求。然后分组自由讨论“空气”和“居民小区”的情况。课后延伸，进行跟踪调查，做“环保小卫士”，评选“环保小卫士”。这样让学生调查社会、多角度观察，学生纷纷把改造家乡环境的想法说出来。
四、展开想象，拓展口语交际的视野
（一）丰富学生的听
一是采用全英教学模式。教师要少用甚至是不用汉语进行教学，要知道学习英语的最大干扰来自于母语，对母语非英语的学生来说，他们已经习惯了母语的思维方式，很容易会将这些母语思维方式带到英语的学习中来。为此，在教学中我们要尽量用英语教学，为学生营造全基的学习环境，这样才能最大限度地避开母语的干扰，学会用英语来进行思维。二是利用现代技术播放地道的英语音频与视频。我们可以利用现代信息技术的声像效果来为学生播放一些通俗易懂的英文歌曲、经典的影视剧片断以及一些英语类节目等，让学生能够接触到更多原汁原味的英语。通过大量的听来增强学生的语感，丰富学生的语言素材。
（二）展开大量的读
“书读百遍，其义自现”“熟读唐诗三百首，不会作也会吟。”指出了读的重要作用，这同样适用于英语教学中学生口语水平的提高。读是语言输出与输入一体化，既可以在读中丰富语言素材，为学生的说打下坚实的基础。同时也是一种主要的说话训练方式，可以在读中增强语感，帮助学生纠正不正确的发音，让学生在读中来增强流畅性与完整性，感受不同的语气与语调。这既是提高学生口语水平的前提条件，同时也是提高的主要途径。为此，在教学中我们要带领学生开展丰富的读，如全班读、分角色读、同桌对话朗读等，让学生进行大量的阅读教材，对于精彩的段落与篇章，要让学生达到熟读成诵的效果。这样长期坚持，可以让学生积累更多的词汇、语法、句型等，让学生拥有更为丰富的语言素材，同时在读中来提高对语言的感知与驾驭能力，这无疑是提高学生英语水平的核心因素。
二、丰富训练，让学生进行更多的说
正所谓“纸上得来终觉浅，方知此事要躬行。”多听多读，增大学生的语言输入量，丰富学生的语言素材，并不直接代表着学生口语水平的提高。学生口语水平最终需要在大量的口语训练活动中得到不断的强化与提高。为此在教学中我们除了为学生构建全英学习环境，用英语教学，并鼓励学生用英语外，还要为学生设计丰富的口语训练活动，让学生有更多说的机会，在大量的训练中来内化知识、提高水平。
（一）表演情景剧
初中生有着强烈的表演欲望，我们可以利用学生的这一特点，选取教材中适合学生表演的话题以及学生所熟悉的话题，来引导学生创编情景剧，并进行表演。这样的活动即创作、表演与说话训练于一体，不仅可以激发学生强烈的参与动机，而且可以让学生将语言的学习与运用与具体的场景、人物等结合起来，这样更加利于提高学生对语言的驾驭能力，利于学生英语水平的整体提高。如问路、打电话、购物、就诊、聚会、访友、旅游等等，都是学生所熟悉的话题，同时也是语言学习的重要内容。我们可以引导学生围绕着这些话题来进行情景剧表演，让学生在表演中运用，在运用中内化，这正是提高学生口语水平的重要活动形式。
（二）课前自由谈话
我们要利用好课前导入环节的时间，可以选取学生所感兴趣的话题来引导学生展开自由谈话。这样的交流形式更灵活，氛围更活跃，更能激起全体学生参与的激情。此时再加以教师必要的引导，自然就可以让学生在轻松愉悦的谈话中来进入新知的学习。谈话导入既避免了直接教学的枯燥无味，可以增强教学的趣味性，激发学生学习兴趣，而且也为学生提供了一个可以自由交流的空间，学生可以展开积极而自由的对话，这同样是一种极为重要的口语训练方式。
（三）组建课外小组
引导学生自由结组，以充分利用丰富的课余时间来开展丰富的口语课外活动。如建立英语广播站，开展辩论赛、组织口语大赛等。其活动更为丰富，可以让学生有更多的听说训练机会，而且这些活动深受学生的喜爱，学生的参与积极性非常高。在课余时间总是能看到学生参与的身影，这样既实现了教学面对全体，全面参与，同时也可以让学生享受口语交流的乐趣，从而让学生更加乐于参与、乐于交流。
三、结语
【关键词】口语交际；培养策略随着社会的发展，口语交际能力日益得到人们的重视。《语文课程标准》提出：“语文是工具性和人文性的统一。而语文是最重要的交际工具，应当培养学生具有日常口语交际的基本能力，在各种交际活动中，学会倾听、表达与交流，初步学会文明地进行人际沟通和社会交往，发展合作精神。”可见口语交际能力是现代公民的必备能力。要求我们培养学生倾听、表达和应对的能力，使学生具有文明和谐进行人际交流的素养。
1以身作则，充分发挥教师的示范作用
口语交际活动是由说者和听者双方的活动构成的，在教学过程中老师的示范作用是非常重要的。我们在备课时不仅备教材，还考虑话怎么说，词怎么用，手势怎么用。教学过程中，我们同时兼顾听和说双方，只要不是我担任说话者，我就以听者的身份出现，与学生一起参与听话训练，用自己集中注意力听话，迅速地做好记录，及时做好良好的反应等良好的表现给学生做榜样。同时，我还认真观察说和听的双方活动，注意巡视学生听说情况，发现说话者语速偏快或偏慢，声音偏高或偏低，姿态、表情不自然，都要以恰当的方式及时指出，让学生作出调整。老师规范化的语言是学生学习的规范化语言的表率。老师的一举一动都成为学生模仿的对象。因此，当我担任说话者时，我很注意自身语言的准确性和规范化，语言简洁、生动，表达清楚明白，努力在口语规范化和口头表达的技巧上发挥示范作用。这样学生听多了，听惯了就会把我们老师的语言化为自己的语言，起到潜移默化的作用。
2创设情境，激发口语交际的兴趣
我们知道，兴趣是最好的老师。一个人无论干什么，只要有兴趣，便有了自觉性。进行口语交际训练也是如此。激发学生的兴趣，就等于激发学生的自觉性，这便成功了一半。创设情境，是激发学生口语交际兴趣的重要途径。创设情境的方法很多。
首先，老师生动的语言，便可以创设一个引人入胜的情境，使学生的大脑里充满神奇的想象，欲罢不能，丰富的想象使他们想说，争着要说。比如，《倔强的小》的教学中，让学生闭上眼睛，那凄凉艰难的声音伴随着老师生动的语言描绘，使行军过草地时勇敢面对困境不畏牺牲的情景再现在学生的脑海，学生犹如身临其境，丰富的想象使学生争着诉说，变“要我说”为“我要说”。阅读教学变得生动活泼，学生的口语交际能力得到了训练，又培养了学生创造性想象能力。
其次，现代化教学媒体的运用，为学生营造一个身临其境的场景，使学生有话想说。现代化教学媒体的运用，是创设情境的重要手段，它直观形象，帮助我们生动地再现了情境，达到其他教学手段无法达到的效果。如在教学《鲸》中，我把齿鲸和须鲸的动画图像利用电脑屏幕投影出来，齿鲸和须鲸怎样呼吸的样子就历历在目。学生兴趣盎然，争相介绍它们是怎样呼吸的，说得活灵活现，口语交际能力得到了培养。
另外，开展丰富多彩的活动，把表演、游戏、角色扮演等引进课堂，营造一个生动活泼的语言环境，提高口语交际的兴趣。例如，《滥竽充数》这寓言具体故事性和趣味性。我在教学之后，让学生把“南郭先生逃走后会怎么样”来续写这个故事，写好后再修改，再让学生上讲台说故事，看谁编得好，讲得好。学生通过亲身参与了讲故事，积极性特别高，说得也特别好。
3坚持上好口语交际课，教给学生口语交际的方法和技巧
根据新大纲，人教社对教材进行了修改。“口语交际”训练成了小学教材的重要组成部分且自成体系，很多基础训练都安排了口语交际训练，内容丰富，形式活泼，有些还有插图，每次训练还精心设计了问题或有提示，体现了每次口语交际训练的主题，明确提出了训练的内容和要求。在教学中我们充分发挥了教材的优势，坚持上好口语交际课。每次上课，我们都紧靠教材内容引导学生先观察插图或是看清要求，然后再讲述。同时我们还十分重视课前准备，如收集资料，观察动植物，或是自己先参加相关的活动。而在口语交际课上，则根据口语交际的不同内容，创设交际的情境。如：生活展现情景、图画再现情景、音乐渲染情境、表演体会情境。我们也尽量做到看说结合，听说结合，演说结合，并做到点面结合，人人互动，生与生说，师与生说，在训练过程中注意每个学生的语言、态度、情感等方面的表现，相机指导。训练中，重听重评，让学生明白：认真听别人说话，既是对别人的尊重，也是对自己听话、辨析能力的训练，还能给自己的说话有一定的启发。在听说的基础上，我们还根据信息反馈的情况及时评价。评价时可以教师评，也可以学生自评，学生互评，说后评，评后再说，努力使说话更趋完整、贴切，努力提高学生口语交际能力。
4开展丰富多彩的课内外活动，提高口语交际能力
1. 口语交际与识字教学相结合 “一字开花”，丰富学生词汇积累。句以词为基础，词以字为单位，要进行听说训练，首先学生要有一定的词汇储备。一字开花，就是为更好地进行说的训练打好基础。如，教“中” 字，先让学生扩出词：中国、中央、中间、心中、中心等，然后启发学生用这些词说话。如：“中、中国、我是中国人。我的祖国是中国。中国是一个伟大的国家。心中：我的心中装着一个小秘密。妈妈的心中最爱的人是我。祖国在我的心中”等。无论学生怎么说，只要他说得有道理，语句通顺，都应予以肯定。
叙述方法，训练学生口语表达。识字教学要与发展思维、发展语言相结合。在识字教学过程中，教师要指导学生用已有的知识自学，并有意识地引导学生用语言叙述自己自学的方法和结果，训练学生的表达能力。如，学习“告”字：先让学生自学，用自己喜欢的方式识记；再让学生交流识字方法，有的学生说“我是用熟字加一部分的方法学习的，告字上面是牛字一竖不露尾，下面加个口”，有的学生说“我是先把上面一部分拆开成一撇和一个土字，下面加个口”，还有的学生说“我觉得我的办法比他们的还好，我是用编字谜的方法来学习的，谜语是：一口咬掉牛尾巴”。学生在说方法的过程中，相互启发、补充，语言能力在无形之中得到了提高。
2. 关注生活，利用一切机会练习口语交际 语文学习的外延和生活的外延大致相当。生活是口语交际的内容，口语交际是生活中必不可少的一种交际工具，丰富多彩的生活给口语交际提供了源头活水。教师要善于捕捉现实生活中的精彩画面，创设口语交际的情境，利用一切机会，对学生进行口语交际训练。
对话是人们在日常生活中最基本的说话方式，是人们运用口头语言进行交际的主要形式之一，说话具有即时性。学生在校最多的空余时间就是课间，所以，教师可以引导学生在课间交流中，要求学生对每一个话题的表述都尽量做到说流利、有条理、说准确，并注意选择恰当的对话方式，形成良好的训练氛围和说话习惯，进行对话训练。久而久之，学生就会在对话中不断纠正错误，提高说话质量。优秀的电影、电视节目，学生都非常喜欢观看，教师可从学生爱看的电影、电视节目中找到切入口，通过多种形式，进行说话训练。如《西游记》是人人喜欢看的电视剧，在学生观看后，我组织他们说说剧中的精彩情节，训练学生说话的条理性、准确性；对剧中空白的情节进行想象说话；有时让学生转述节目的主要内容；我还组织了一次“《西游记》人物评论会”，学生的说话具有较强的针对性、层次性，收到良好的训练效果。此外，孩子们感兴趣的动画片、电影，都是学生进行口语训练的好题材。这样的说话训练，学生能在愉快的气氛中，既回顾了电影、电视节目的内容，丰富了知识储备，又使学生的口头表达能力得到了训练，一举多得，是可以经常性、长期进行训练的好方式。
3. 创设和谐氛围――让学生大胆交流 融洽的人际关系、真诚的情感交流、和谐的心理氛围是保证口语交际顺利进行的关键。因此，我们积极倡导人人互爱、人人平等的绿色环境，积极倡导师生平等、人人平等的学习公平理念，构建民主、平等、和谐、理解、双向的师生关系，提高教师的亲和力。因为，学生只有在感觉到安全的情况下，才会大胆地与他们交流。而让学生感到心理安全的前提是在与同学、与老师的口语交流中是平等的。因此，教师要充分利用自己的非权利影响力，以身作则，以平等的姿态参与口语交际，为学生们口语交际提供样板，引导学生平等、信任、互助地交际。
关键词：初中语文 口语交际 素质教育 教育创新 教学方法
口语是人类最主要、最直接的交流工具，也是初中教育尤其是初中语文教育要着力培养的学生能力。由于片面地追求分数，大量地使用网络，加之独生子女政策、现代通信手段的发展等，中学生口语表达能力弱化已经成为了教育界及社会普遍关注的问题。本文笔者拟结合自己这几年强化初中语文教学中口语交际能力培养的一些做法和体会，就如何进一步认识口语交际能力培养的特点、意义和存在问题，如何抓住重点实施初中生口语交际能力培养，如何采取措施保障这一工作得到不断加强，作一些梳理，仅供同仁们参考。
一、初中生口语交际的特点、重要性及存在的问题
初中生从小学走来，向青年递进，在其生理趋向成熟的同时，心理上的自我意识也会越来越强，讲话开始更多注意自己的形象，怕讲不好丢面子、挨批评，有意地选用其他“不讲话的方式”表达意见。学生思维能力急速增长后，外在的语言表达能力，尤其是口语表达能力往往跟不上思维表达的需要，要么有东西说不出来，要么说出来的不是要说的东西，碰到不熟的环境、不相识的人，更加紧张，甚至表达得语无伦次。越是感到自己没说好，就越不想说，形成恶性循环，使得如今不少初中生宁愿通过网络、短信等表达，也不想大声地说话，这将直接影响到他们今后的学习与成长。
口语表达是一个人思维活动最直接、最迅速的反映，口语训练本身也是以思维力为核心的智力训练。它能有效地培养学生思维的条理性、严密性、敏捷性、灵活性，有助于培养学生稳定的注意力、敏锐的观察力、持久的记忆力和丰富的想象力。有统计表明，人们在日常生活中的语言应用，听占45% ，说占30%，读占16%，写占9%。也就是说，听与说占了人与人之间交流的75%，如果不善口语表达，一个人的事业和人生都会因此而打相应的折扣。初中生开始有基本的思想，基本的社会交往，说的基本能力也主要形成于这个时候。在初中语文教学中充分激发学生说的积极性和主动性，提高学生“说”的能力，至关重要。
目前，应试教育的问题在初中教学中依然严重，只有笔试没有口试，多数初中生口语交际能力不尽如人意，不少人心中有话不敢说，一说话就显得面红耳赤，结结巴巴。甚至三年初中都从无机会登台亮相当众发言，机会越少越不会说。一些同仁把教材中安排的口语交际练习，作为课外作业布置给学生自己去做，使口语交际教学流于形式。极个别同仁以自己的“出口成章”要求学生伶牙俐齿，对发言表述不流畅或含糊不清加以指责，也大大挫伤了学生“说”的积极性。
二、初中生口语交际能力培养的重点是激发兴趣、训练提高和技巧传授
初中语文教学无论是素质教育，还是应试教育，任务都相当繁重。培养学生的口语交际能力应当融入其中，突出重点，有序推进，既不能流于形式，也不能影响其他教学任务的完成。笔者在这几年的实践过程中主要抓了以下三个方面。
一是努力激发学生的口语交际兴趣。兴趣是成功的一半。初中生心智还没有完全成熟，更需要以兴趣支撑学习。调动初中生的口语交际兴趣，教师应注意从他们思想解放，活泼开朗，有较强的参与意识，渴望展示自我，实现自我价值的特点出发，多开展一些表演活动，让学生在表演的过程中用口语把自己所学所想充分表达出来。教师要特别注意热情引导和宽松环境的重要性，让学生心态开放，大胆自信，无拘无束地开口说话，不要怕他们说错、说少、说乱、说重复，要鼓励他们多说、“瞎说”、不同地说。这几年，只要课堂任务相对不紧，我都会在一节课中安排至少三分钟，轮流让一组学生就自己“想说的故事、想讲的新闻趣事”进行口语表演，平均每个学生每周至少说一两次，主要让学生讲所见所闻，介绍事情经过，发表自己的想法，起到了比较明显的效果。这样，坚持一两个学期就能够让一些原本张口就结的学生完整地说上一两分钟。
二是刻意加强学生的口语交际训练。人人天生会说话，口语交际本不难。之所以变成了问题，是因为我们的人为阻隔，因此我认为，初中生口语交际能力培养的过程就是解放他们说话权的过程，就是训练他们恢复说话本能的过程。训练的方式，包括：1.朗读训练。教师一定要坚持每课的朗读，可以全班读、分组读、个人读，通过读来培养学生的语感，来保证字正腔圆。2.背诵训练。这对学生学习与掌握好普通话具有相当重要的意义，尤其是整体背诵时音最高、读书气氛浓，学生记忆快，有助于提高学生的口语表达能力。3.问答训练。教师要精心设计问题，有意识地选择学生回答问题，让学生经认真思考后能答出来、答得多，要根据问题的难易程度，请学习成绩不同、口头表达能力不同的学生来回答。4.口语比赛。对于口语水平低的学生，教师可以进行朗读比赛，成语及短语接龙比赛；对于口语水平高的学生，教师可以出一些即兴题目，如谈社会热点问题的看法等。
三是积极引导学生的口语技巧积累。口语表达也是一门学问，其中有许多技巧需要在实践不断积累。初中是有意识掌握这门学问的开始，教师要更加重视基本技巧的日积月累。教师要引导口语表达不理想的学生向能说会道的学生学习，总结后者的特点供前者模仿赶超。教师要通过听课文录音、名人演讲等方式，剖析他们的断句、节奏、表情、轻重音处理等技巧，并一一解说给学生，让初中生充分知道口语交际不是简单地说说而已，也大有技巧可学。教师还要特别注意让学生在辩论中提高技巧，鼓励初中生抓住机会反驳别人的观点，引导他们为了辩倒对方而不断提高技巧。
三、初中生口语能力培养要有力而为，有心而为，有的而为
初中生口语交际能力培养是长期工程，要贯穿于初中语文教学的始终。能不能持之以恒地实施下去，取决于教师的口语教学能力和意志。作为初中语文教师，我们要尽可能接受系统的、专业的口语交际培训或口语专项训练，从理论层面上对口语交际有清晰、全面、透彻的认识和理解。在掌握业务的基础上，教师要带头说普通话，要求学生发言必须用普通话，鼓励学生态度大方，口齿清楚，清晰简洁地表达自己的意思，微笑着认真倾听哪怕是最差的口语表达。教师还要将口语交际训练与考试挂钩，通过让学生或介绍自己的学习情况，或总结本期学习，或讲一个小故事等，重视自己的口语交际能力培养，区分优、良、及格、不及格等成绩并通知家长，争取家长支持共同提升初中生的口语表达能力。在有力、有心的基础上，学校还应加强学生和教师口语交际训练结果的评价，适当地奖优励先，调动教师和学生的积极性，使口语交际在初中语文教学中保持并不断赢得其应有的地位。
参考文献：
[1]曹维菊.初中语文教学中学生口语表达能力的培养[J].学周刊：A，2013（1）.
[2]刘海涛.浅谈如何在初中语文教学中培养学生的口语表达能力[J].中国校外教育：上旬，2012（10）.
一、小学语文阅读教学中口语交际能力培养的现状
我国小学语文阅读教学中主要存在两个问题：一是教师缺乏培养口语交际能力的意识，认为学生只要学好语文阅读知识，掌握阅读技巧就可以，至于口语交际能力的培养则无关紧要，严重忽视了口语交际能力的重要性；二是教师重视培养学生的口语交际能力，但是缺乏有效的教学手段来提升学生的交际能力，没有找到更好的办法来帮助学生正确理解口语能力的重要性。长此以往，导致学生的交流沟通能力无法得到显著提高。
二、小学语文阅读教学中口语交际能力培养的方法
1.增强培养交际能力的意识
教师需要更新教学观念，转变传统的以应试教育为教学目标的观念，真正重视在阅读教学中培养学生的口语交际能力。教师在阅读教学中大幅度减少口语交际的内容，甚至将学生的作业题型集中在字词和文章方面的理解，完全忽略口语交际的教学。因此，教学需要重新变更教学内容，结合学生的特点和教学大纲的要求，将阅读教学集中在学生的听、说、读、写等能力方面的提高上，进而培养学生的阅读素养，特别是在欣赏美文时，要让学生主动发表自己的观点，之后教师就其观点作出正确的评价，提升课堂教学的效率。
2.创造良好的口语交际氛围
在阅读教学中，教师要重点培养学生的口语能力，这时就需要学生参与到课堂教学中，积极主动地发表自己的想法，营造一个民主自由的阅读课堂，消除学生不敢说的心理障碍，鼓励学生活跃起来，为学生创造更多的发言机会。教师还可以创造良好的教学情境，为学生创造一个良好的对话情境，锻炼学生的口语能力，有针对性地提升学生的交际水平。
3.注重对语言文字的积累
摘 要
近年来，随着我国改革开放的发展和我国与国际间的经济、科技、文化交流日益频繁，人们越来越重视外国文化问题。同时，我们也逐渐认识到了了解外国文化在对外交往中的重要性。在教育领域中，外语教学也渐渐重视对学生交际能力的培养。然而，对许多老师而言，文化教学还是一个较新的概念，从跨文化角度对英语教学进行研究探讨在目前还是个新领域。我们必须认识到交际能力的培养是外语教学的主要目标，培养学生跨文化交际的技能是中学外语教学要达到的一个目标。文化教学在中学英语教学中的重要性不可忽视，英语学习者不了解英语国家的文化，就无法获得交际能力。因此在中学英语口语教学中应该目标明确地，循序渐进地，方法得当地导入文化教学，使英语学习者在学习语言和知识的同时受到文化的熏陶，在跨文化交际中游刃有余。
关键词： 跨文化交际；文化教学；中学英语口语教学
ABSTRACT
Since last century, because of reforming and opening policy, many people, especially young people go abroad to get a better job or get further education and so on. Besides, many foreigners are curious about our country. Consequently, people come to realize that if we know little about cross-cultural communication, there will be many conflicts. Some experts suggest that today’s English teaching should emphasize intercultural communication. Learners ought to know not only grammar or words, but should learn cultural knowledge. If not, they will meet many difficulties while they communicate with foreigners. Therefore, it is important to introduce this kind of knowledge while teaching. We can’t neglect the importance of culture teaching in middle school foreign language teaching, English teachers should integrate culture into ELF teaching gradually and appropriately. Thus the students may have a better understanding of the target language, and they may communicate freely and effectively in cross-culture communication.
Keywords：Cross-cultural communication; Cultural teaching; middle school ELF oral teaching
Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. the concept of intercultural communication 3
2.1 Literature review 3
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication 4
3.A survey based on classroom observations 7
3.1 The analysis of interviews 7
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire 7
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1) 9
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2) 10
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum 12
4. Ways of improving cross-cultural communication competence in middle school oral teaching 15
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence 17
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in chinese middle school 17
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners 17
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers 19
5. Conclusion 25
Acknowledgements 26
References 27
AppendixⅠ 28
1． Introduction
Language is just like a mirror that reflects its national culture. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that culture comprises all products of human activity, including fields of literature, art, music, architecture, and scientific as well as aspects of customs, life-style, code of conduct, worldly wisdom and social organization, etc. Languages are generally accepted words and rules drawn from speech. Language is the carrier of culture and culture is the content of language20.
Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions. First, we live in an age when changes in technology, travel, economy, and political systems, immigration patterns, especially the emergence of Internet, have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. And whether we like it or not, these interactions will continue to grow in both frequently and intensely. Second, people now know that the influence of culture affects communication in a subtle way. Our culture perceptions and experiences help determine how the world looks and how we interact in the world.
However, as we look back to see the situation in China’s high schools. We see that, for several decades, language teachers have not been able to pay attention to the role of culture knowledge in language oral teaching. Nowadays, in the ELF oral teaching, especially in middle school, teachers pay much attention to vocabulary.
As Chinese culture is not the same as that of English-speaking countries, the rules for using Chinese are, in some respects, different from those using English. There is especially good evidence that Chinese students may transfer their mother tongue references of language used to their English performance and fail to communicate effectively[1]24. Misunderstanding caused by cross-cultural communication should break down and much attention should be paid to them in English language t eaching.
So in middle school ELF oral teaching, teachers must not only improve students’ language level, but also pay attention to cultivating students’ abilities of intercultural communication.
2. The concept of intercultural communication
2.1 Literature review
More and more common practice of intercultural communication promotes the emergence of the concept of intercultural communicative competence. It is a challenging issue for language study and language teaching.
In 1965, Chomsky put forward the concept of linguistic competence and linguistic performance. Later, it was challenged by Campbell and Wales (1970) and Hymes (1972). Hymes (1972) argues that the appropriateness of language is the core of communicative competence, and he sees communicative competence as part of cultural competence. Canale and Swain (1980) put forward a more complex framework, and Canale (1983) summarized communicative competence in the way that it includes four component parts --- grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. Canale’s conclusion in fact suggests that all aspects of language using are determined by culture. The continuous theoretical research of communicative competence has paved the way for the development of language teaching in which cultural factors are considered more and more important.
In 1975, the first textbook on intercultural communication “An Introduction to Intercultural Communication” (Conden & Yousef ) was published, and many other books followed it. The research on intercultural communication has developed quickly, and has exerted incredible influence on language and cultural teaching.
Traditional language teaching divides language techniques into listening, speaking, reading and writing. Deman (1987) applied the theories of intercultural communication to language and cultural teaching, and viewed cultural teaching as the fifth dimension of language teaching. Seelye published a book named “Teaching Culture: Strategies for Foreign Language Education” in 1984. Gumperz (1982) conducted investigations on the “discourse strategy” of the communicators who had a non-English cultural background and who spoke English as the second language. He revealed that those communicators’ assumptions of the world that had been formed in their native cultural context would exert great influence on intercultural communication. This, in turn, has stimulated a trend in language teaching that sees culture as discourse (Widdowson, 1984; Mclarthy, 1991; Kramsch, 1993; Candlin,1994; Hanks,1996). So since 1990, process-centered and task-oriented teaching mode has been widely adopted in the west.
Besides, American applied linguist G. Robinson (1985) put forward an important concept that through language and cultural teaching learners would gain “Cultural Versatility”. That is to say, through learning culture, learners would change internally. This viewpoint is quite significant.
Prof. Michael Bryam’s research is also strikingly notable. He holds that foreign language education includes four parts: language learning, language understanding, cultural understanding, and cultural experience.
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication
“Intercultural Communication” can hence be defined as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which differ form each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behavior. In this Concepts of intercultural and Combines the Concepts of intercultural and communication, It also describes the problems and pitfalls of misunderstanding and the skills and competence required for successfully understanding member of other culture.
Thanks to Edward T. Hall who is regarded as the founder of intercultural communication, a new brink knowledge, intercultural communication, has been becoming more and more widespread in the whole world ever since the publication of his great work The Silence Language. Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual processing tool with which people from different cultures create shared meaning[2]115. Intercultural communication occurs whenever a message produced in one culture must be processed in another culture. It can best be understood as cultural variance in the perception of social objects and events. The barriers to communication caused by this perceptual variance can best be lowered by a knowledge and understanding of cultural factors that are subject to variance, coupled with an honest and sincere desire to communicate successfully across cultural boundaries.
Intercultural communication refers to communication between persons who have d ifferent cultural beliefs, values, or ways of behaving.
2.2.1 Cultural and cross-cultural communication
Cultural awareness in language learning is the ability to be aware of cultural relativity following reading, writing, listening and speaking. As Claire kramsch points out…[12]
If…language is seen as social practice, culture becomes the very core of language teaching, cultural awareness must then be viewed as enabling language proficiency…
Language itself is defined by culture. Language competent cannot be achieved without a good understanding of culture that shapes it, especially in foreign language learning. It is not only therefore essential to have cultural awareness, but also have cross-cultural communication awareness, such as the understanding of the relationship between target culture and native culture.
2.2.2 Culture teaching and ELF oral teaching in middle school
The interrelationship between culture teaching and language teaching has been explored in depth by Michael Byram. The basis of Byram’s position is that it views language as a cultural phenomenon, embodying the values and meanings particular to a specific society, referring to the traditions and artifacts of that society and signaling its people’s sense of themselves—their cultural identity: “to teach foreign culture is to introduce learners to new competences and to allow them to reflect upon their own culture and cultural competence[2].” It is assumed by others that language could somehow stand alone and be taught as a value-free symbolic system. But the social nature of language works oppositely when separating it from its original culture, especially when appearing in overseas contexts, where the learners’ contact with the culture is largely confined to the foreign language classroom.
Traditional foreign language teaching does not pay much attention to cultural factor. It focuses mainly on the vocabulary and structure of the language. But plenty of facts prove that language is not only a symbol, a system, which put forward by pure linguistic theory scholar, but also a social practice. Therefore successful foreign language teaching must help the student master the knowledge of culture rules, in addition to use them in particular situation. Every nation has its unique culture pattern and language is the carrier of culture. For instance, Asians emphasize the importance of orderly society whereas Americans emphasize the importance of personal freedom and individual rights. For effective and appropriate communication, learners in middle school must be familiar with the differences in the foreign culture which they are learning and take according language behaviors.
3. A survey based on classroom observations
Survey date: 25/02/2009
Survey instrument: interview and questionnaire.
Subjects: students of Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. 30 students are interviewed, 98 students (30 interviewed students and another 68 students) participate in questionnaire. All the 98 copies of questionnaire are valid.
The objective of this survey is to investigate:
1) Students’ attitudes towards cross-cultural communication in the ELF oral learning
2) Current situation of students’ information input.
3.1 The analysis of interviews
Thirty English learners are interviewed and are invited to answer only one question: what is a competent language learner like in your eyes? The responses tend to fall into three categories:
(1) Twenty five interviewees think that he or she is good at English listening, speaking, reading and writing abilities, especially at speaking and listening;
(2) Ten of them think he or she is familiar with foreign culture and is a successful cross-cultural communicator.
(3) Five of them think a good command of native language is necessary.
In order to describe more directly, the results of interviews are put into a table (Table.1).
Table1. Results of the Interview
Positive attitudes Percentage
Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.33％ (25/30)
Accumulation of culture 33.33％ (10/30)
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ ( 5/30)
These students’ responses reveal the following information:
Firstly, these students still see the four basic skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) as their main study objective. Secondly, cross-cultural communication competence has already been realized by language learners, but this group is small compared to the whole. Thirdly, the importance of mother tongue competence has only been seen by a few interviewees.
According to this interview, most interviewees have realized the importance of language proficiency in language learning, but the point is why only one third of the interviewees have realized the importance and necessity of cross-cultural communicative competence since which are discussed so warmly in present language teachin g world? Do they hold a negative view on it or do they just have not yet obtained the awareness consciously?
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire
The English learning questionnaire consists of nine closed-ended questions (see Appendix), For instance, “you have the interest and passion in English and language learning”, and the answers falls into four types:
1. Strongly Agree (SA) 2. Agree (A) 3. Disagree (D) 4. Strongly Disagree (SD)
According to the research content, the analysis of questionnaire is divided into two parts. The first five are put in Table 2 and the rest four questions are put in Table 4.
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
This part of analysis involves data analysis on questions 1-5 in the questionnaire and a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
3.2.1.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
Table2. Results of Questions 1-5 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning 60.29％ 31.65％ 2.04％ 6.02％
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary 17.35％ 69.39％ 13.26％ 0.00％
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in the ELF oral learning 44.90％ 53.06％ 2.04％ 0.00％
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural communication competence are of equal importance 50.00％ 48.98％ 1.02％ 0.00％
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on 39.80％ 60.20％ 0.00％ 0.00％
Questions 1-5 (see appendix) indicate a clear picture of students’ attitudes towards language proficiency learning, native language learning, and accumulation on cross-cultural communication competence, literature, and politics and so on. On the importance of the cultivation of reading, speaking, listening and writing in language learning, 91.94% (60.29% SA+31.65% A) of English majors agree and of which 64.29% strongly agree. On daily English novels reading, a total of 86.74% (17.35% SA+69.39% A) consider it necessary. On the necessity a good command of native language, 97.96% (44.90% SA+53.06% A) of English learners agree. On the relation of native language learning and foreign language learning, 98.98% (50.0% SA+48.98% A) believe that these two are of equal importance. Finally, on a regularly reading of politics, economy, and culture, all (39.80% SA+60.20% A) the students hold a supportive attitude.
3.2.1.2 Comparison between the interviews and the questionnaire
With regards to the similarities of the contents examined, it seems necessary to
have a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
Table3. Comparison between the Interviews and the Questionnaire
Positive attitudes (SA+A) Interview
(open-ended) Questionnaire
(close-ended)
Foreign Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.88％ 91.94％
Accumulation of intercultural communication competence 33.33％ 98.98％
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ 97.96％
From the table above, the comparison is very clear that, towards the same research content, interviewees’ responds vary when they are faced with different types of questions. The gap is especially seen on the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency. Compared with open-ended question in the interview, interviewees tend to hold a more supportive view on closed-ended questions in the questionnaire. In other word, most English learners subjectively admit the importance of the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency, but the point is, not all of them have already obtained the awareness. However, two questions have been proposed from the comparison: (1) Why English learners have not obtained the cross-cultural awareness which should be tied up with the ELF oral learning? (2) Is that because they subjectively lack learning motivation or objectively, they lack timely and efficiently teachers’ cultural guidance?
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2)
This part of questionnaire (table4 in next page) mainly focuses on students’ attitudes towards learning motivation as well as classroom learning. Before the analysis is taken, a brief introduction on motivation can help to have a better understanding on the analysis.
1) Integrative motivation
Motivation has been identified as the learners’ orientation with regards to the goal of learning foreign language69. This form of motivation is known as integrative motivation.
.2) Instrumental Motivation
In contrast to integrative motivation is the form of motivation which is known as in strumental motivation. This is generally characterized by the desire to obtain something practical from the study of foreign language[9]125. With instrumental motivation, the purpose of study is more practical, such as meeting the requirements for college graduation, applying for a job and achieving higher social status.
Table4. Results of Questions 6-9 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
6) Your have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning 14.29％ 61.22％ 21.43％ 3.06％
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after the graduation 21.43％ 66.33％ 11.22％ 1.02％
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning abilities and improve your cross-cultural skills 2.04％ 7.14％ 71.43％ 19.39％
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. 25.51％ 63.27％ 9.18％ 2.04％
As is shown in the table (results of questions 6 and 7), 75.51% (14.29%SA+61.22%A) of English learners have the interest and passion in language learning, and 87.76% (21.43%SA+66.33%A) of them would like to get an English related job in the future. According to the introduction of motivation, the answers to those two questions (questions 6 and 7) can be taken as the representation of integrative and instrumental motivation respectively. Therefore, a conclusion can be made that, most students subjectively want to make a living by using their language competence.
In order to check the condition of students’ cultural information input, questions 8 and 9 are designed and analyzed. 89.82% (71.43%D+19.39SD) of English learners do not think that the present classroom teaching can cultivate their learning abilities and improve their cross-cultural communication competence, whereas a total of 88.78% (25.51%SA+63.27%A) hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. It can be found that most English majors are not satisfied with the current classroom teaching. They hope to enjoy a more interactive and communicative teaching style. The traditional text-based grammatical and linguistic teaching could not meet the needs of the cultivation of communicative competence to some extent. What’s more important is that students are supposed to have a consciously as well as unconsciously cultural awareness promote by language teachers.
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum
It is shown from the result of question 8 in the table above (table 4) that present foreign language teaching has not provided a satisfactory fruit on cultural awareness cultivation. A question should be taken into consideration, that is, how can cross-culture awareness be expressed in the foreign language curriculum, with the purpose to cultivate language learners’ cultural awareness and communication insight into the target civilization? For a long time, this has been attempted by introducing the geographical environment and historical or political development of the foreign culture, its institutions and customs, its literary achievements, and even everyday life of its people. Take English learners in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school as an example, their cultural input has largely come from courses such as Extensive Reading, Communication between Cultures, American Literature, and An Outline Introduction to Britain and America, and so on. Following is a basic analysis on the four courses.
Table5. Courses Information
Course Duration Teacherˊs background
Extensive Reading first 4 terms Chinese
Communication between cultures the 7th term New Zealander
American literature the 7th term Chinese
An Outline Introduction to Britain and America the 7th term Canadian
Extensive Reading was taught by a Chinese teacher during the first four terms, and the teaching contents mainly focus on western culture, economy, politic, education and so on. After two years study, it helps students build up a general view on western civilization. Communication between Cultures is taught by a English-speaking teacher from New Zealand, the teaching content seems “boring and meaningless” said the majority of students, the teacher read the chapters from the book to the class instead of giving practical cross-cultural communication analysis. So for most students, they did not learn as much as they expected from this course. American literature was taught by a Chinese teacher, and the teaching contents include background information introduction and literacy reading. An Outline Introduction to Britain and America was taught by a Canadian teacher who has a good experience on both British and American cultures. In this course, students are introduced to a comparison of the British and American culture.
From what have been introduced above, it can be seen that although there are four courses and an 28-month course duration, most of what students have taken is an education of “cultural background knowledge” on Chinese or English rather t han practical cross-cultural communication stimulation such as comparisons or contradictions between the target and native culture. To some extent, it revels why most English students have not got a conscious awareness in cultural or cross-cultural communication competence.
Through comparisons between the interview and the questionnaire, it can be seen that students hold positive attitudes on develop the competence of intercultural communication, but for some reasons, not so many have already obtained conscious cross-cultural awareness. Through further analysis of curriculum on cultural teaching, it reveals that present cultural teaching in ELF oral teaching shows the weakness in practical, sufficient and conscious cultural input to help build up language learner’s cross-cultural awareness. Moreover, the current teaching is also expected to be more communicative and interactive. Thus, following on are the possible ways to promote the competence of intercultural communication,
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence
Firstly, it is vital for language teachers to help language learners develop their cross-cultural communication competence. If the final purpose of intercultural communication competence cultivation is to help students to acquire cross-cultural communication competence, then what cross-cultural communication competence is? According to Kramsch’s opinion, cross-cultural awareness is not really a skill, but a collection of skills and attitudes known as a competence[12].
Secondly, it is necessary to make clear what cross-cultural awareness skills students are supposed to acquire. It has been suggested that cross-cultural awareness consists of having four different perspectives on communication with a different culture. Cross-cultural competent students should be able to:
----look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (for example, having a good understanding and awareness of their own culture)
----Be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures
----understand or see the target culture from its own perspective (for example, understanding and being aware of what other people think of their own culture)
----Be aware of how they see the target culture
4.1.1 The request of the development of Internationalization
Lin Dajin in the “cross-cultural communication study, ” pointed out that culture can be defined as “ the integrated feature that a nation is distinct from another nation. ” Cultural differences are the barriers of cross-cultural communication. The modernization process accelerated the circulation of spiritual and material products, and brought all nationalities into a common “global village”, cross-cultural communication became an integral part of national life. If people do not understand the cultural convention in the USA or Britain, and use the way of China to treat foreigners, then it will create a lot of jokes, and even hurt each other's feelings, self-esteem and cause misunderstanding. Thus, to overcome the cultural differences caused by communication barriers has become a common problem faced by the entire world.
4.1.2 It is imperative to understand the cultural background knowledge
Understanding cultural knowledge is the key to language learning. “One can not really learn the language, and teach language well unless one knows the patterns and norms of culture and cultural background[14]224. ” Without a specific cultural background, language is non-existent. If we don’t know the culture of target language, we would find it is difficult to understand the meaning of certain words. For example, “Thanksgiving”, “Sandwich” has been brought about in a specific social and historical circumstance, it is not enough merely to know the meaning of the surface of these words. Another example is: “You are, indeed, a lucky dog”, the literal translation is “you are a lucky dog. ” This is a satiric sentence in China, because, in Chinese views, “dog” is an expression when people used to refer generally to dislike someone. While in English, it can mean, “You are a lucky man. ” In Western society, “dog” is a family member, and they are harmonious coexisting with people “Dog” here refers to people instead of satirizing others, but a very intimate expression.
4.1.3 Cultural knowledge teaching is the objective of language teaching
The main objective of language teaching is to train and develop students’ interpersonal skills. And cultural knowledge teaching can increase the ability of cross-cultural communication, which is the important content to achieve goals of language teaching. For example, in American society, praise and compliments language that flatter mainly a personal appearance, new things, personal property, and individuals in a ce rtain area are commonly used as the introduction to a conversation. This is different from Chinese. Thus, different nations have different cultural environments, different living habits and different languages behavior expressions. And as a language learner, if not ideologically “physically entering their social linguistic environment” will be difficult to achieve the goal of language learning，not to say that language teaching objectives will be accomplished.
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
After the survey research and data analysis, now we have a clear idea of the common reasons that triggered the weakness of the cross-cultural communication in middle school ELF oral teaching. However, we do not have a clarity solution about this situations. Therefore, some strategies were listed here to help learners with their language learning.
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners
4.2.1.1Raising culture awareness
Culture awareness is the term we have used to describe sensitivity to the impact of culturally---induced behavior on language use and communication. It including two qualities: one is awareness of one’s own culture, the other is awareness of the culture[7]15.
Unfortunately, in China, cross-cultural communication errors can be found from time to time. In the ELF oral learning, culture factor needs to be taken seriously. To cultivate students’ intercultural communication we need first to arouse their cultural awareness. Because of different cultural background, life experience, profession, sex, education, even age, character, people may have different modes of interaction. People learn to think, feel, behave and strive for what their culture considers proper. These means there might not be the same as what is intended by the speaker. If we are aware of this, we can avoid ethnocentricity, and can have better communication with people all over the world.
Speakers of a foreign language often have the experience of making careless mistakes which may cause get angry, may be embarrassing and may arouse hostility from native speaker. Often such mistakes occur even though the application of the linguistic rules of grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation is correct. These mistakes are culture errors but occur because of not knowing or choosing the appropriate style, and manner to use for effective communication.
4.2.1.2 The development of sensitiveness to culture differences
There are four stages in the development of the sensitiveness to culture differences. The first, one can make out the obvious, superficial culture characteristics. In other word, he will find them interesting and exotic. The second, one can judge the delicate meaningful cultural characteristics that are quite different from his own. Usually he will feel them incredible or hard to accept .The third, one can accept the cultural characteristics after rational analysis. The fourth, one can be in the other peoples’ shoes and appreciate the cultural characteristics. In other words, the first three stage can be understood, and the fourth empathy.
4.2.1.3 The development of empathy
In order to communication effectively, you need a deep degree of empathy, that is to be able to understand the other person’s affective and cognitive states. Empathy differs from sympathy in that it does not include pity or approval. And focuses on the feelings of others, not our own[12]114. Empathy involves relativism and flexibility, which knowledge alone cannot consist. Teachers can create good classroom environment where students tolerate and appreciate different norms by bringing up students’ empathy. In China, we always emphasize collectivism instead of individualism. But in English class, we advocate differences, to encourage students to understand each other.
To facilitate empathy, we can take these measures:
(1) Subjects like history, anthropology, and sociology should be introduced into
the curriculum. Through these subjects, the students can not only acquaint themselves with the examples of foreign culture, but also master some concepts and principles concerning with culture.
(2) The students should be encouraged to read broadly in Chinese middle
school, both fiction non-fiction, literal or philosophical. Including proverbs, broad reading can be a student better understand and communicate with other cultures. Only through broad reading can he know the taboos, values, beliefs and religion of another culture, only through broad reading can be truly come to realize why privacy is so important and that individualism is so cherished.
(3) The students should he sent abroad for further study if possible. Thus they
can live with the natives for some time, no chance is better than the close contact. They can enjoy the new culture. By enhancing ICC, the intercultural communication of the learners can be carried out tactfully, acco rding to different context.
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers
Language teachers are supposed to exert instructional strategies to help language learners promote their cross-cultural communication competence, that is, provide language learners with some useful ideals for presenting culture from its own perspective, for example, understanding and being aware of what people in target culture think of their own culture.Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words. Just as what we mentioned above, we have been aware of the importance of learning some cultural knowledge about the target language. It seems impossible and unnecessary for us to have a systematic study of target culture, which covers almost everything, in one’s whole lifetime. The difficulty shows that culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional and complex. A good solution to this problem might be to learn selectively those cultural factors that have great influence on intercultural communication, and that are closely related to the language. So on culture teaching we should follow these principles :( 1) interrelated. that is culture teaching must be interrelated with the content of the text. (2) Appropriate, that is culture teaching must be subjected to language teaching. (3) Practical, that is culture teaching must try to be “useful” for students in their communication. (4) Scientific, that is culture knowledge must be taught correctly, completely and objectively. (5) Flexible, that is culture teaching must be flexible according to the change of the world.
We must obey these five principles if we want to cultivate students’ abilities of cross-cultural communication. What we should teach in ELF classes is simply a foreign way of life related to the target language and teachers should avoid bringing their own cultural prejudice into class. The world is changing, so are the traditions and customs. The constant changes require us to improve our skills of intercultural communication by doing two things: understanding the cultural differences, especially the differences in the deep structure of different cultures, and becoming flexible in intercultural communication. There is a great tendency that one culture adopts the elements from another that are compatible with its own values and beliefs or that can be changed without causing major disruption.
4.2.2.1 Make full use of developing the interest of the competence of intercultural communication in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
Intercultural communication is a big issue, which is not easy for both teachers and students to understand and realize. For successful cultural teaching, we suggest doing the following:
(1) Teach culture differences. Teachers should directly address the similarities and peculiarities between the source culture and the target culture. This can be done through the comparison of the two cultures.
(2) Provide opportunities for students to use the language in situational conversations. While introducing the students play a real-life role and practice their everyday language use according to the varied situation.
(3) Induce students to read literal works, which are vivid and abundant material to understand the character, the psychological state, culture characteristics, convention, and social relationships. Reading newspaper is also the direct path.
(4) Be aware of your students development level, when selecting themes or concepts to present. At first, learning activities should be clear and specific in lower levels, gradually, becoming more complex than the level of the student increases. There are a variety of children’s fiction which presents concepts like similarities, differences and prejudice which can be used at lower levels. At upper levels fiction and biographies can be used to present the more complicated ideas. Try to connect the unfamiliar with the familiar, the known with the unknown.
(5) Use plenty of ways in both general learning tasks and in language learning tasks.
(6) Use varied methods to check the understanding level of the students.
(7) Be enthusiastic. As a teacher you need to be aware of the value of learning a second language in terms of its contribution to developing cultural aware and a range of other cognitive and vocational benefits. Your attitude will influence the attitudes of the child ren in the class and their parents.
Beside, Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words.
For example, we once tried to spend Christmas and Hallowmas with all foreign teachers together in our school .The students were very interested and active in the activities， and such experiences can have impressed them strongly and forever.
Teachers should encourage students to communicate with foreign teachers and some other foreigners in and out of school. Students and foreign teachers can have classes, play games and take part in many kinds of activities together. Communicating with foreigners can provide students with the real cultural context in which English is used actually and stimulate students to learn English well including knowing about foreign culture.
As the success of many activities depends on good organization and on the students knowing exactly what they are to do. A teacher is thus mainly an organizer, whose work is different from administrator of a school system. But the teacher, like any other organizer, works primarily with people, and his task and responsibility are to create situations in which people can do their best and achieve their best.
Since teachers are key roles during culture teaching, they must play a positive role in helping the students to develop intercultural communicative competence and increase the students’ chances to succeeding in both language learning. It is not an expendable skill tacked on to the teaching of speaking, listening, writing and reading. It is always in some background. Lack of intercultural competence will limit the students’ ability to make sense of the world around them, and lead to failure in using English for communication across-culture.
4.2.2.2 Make full use of pictures, films, TV, computers and other audio-visual aids to make the teaching lively and interesting. Explore to the full the opportunities for students with the target culture information.
(1) Plays in and out of class
It is proved that plays in and out of class are probably the most efficient ways of language teaching.
The role of plays and dramas manifests itself when learners perform by themselves. Mini-dramas acted by students expose them to a “process of self-confrontation” with the target cultural communicates. The learners can act out mini-dramas written by them, which show misinterpretation of something that happens in the target cultural context. The cause of the problem is usually clarified in the final scene. Cultural similarities and differences will be analyzed by way of follow-up discussion.
In the listening book of Senior English book3 unit24, the material involves “finding a job”, English teachers can extract one or two advertisements from the magazine for students. Teachers can ask the students to divide into two groups, one group act as recruiters, and the other group act as applicants. By looking at the advertisements, appointing to interview, using some simple props, students can exchange views on working conditions, wages and other issues. Thus, students can understand the practical knowledge of Foreign Service work; the actors also can improve their abilities of practical language.
A short play can be broken down into sections. As learners learn (not memorize) one section, they move on to the next. By combining the sections, they have learned the play. The use of this technique enables different groups of learners to work on several short plays at the same time and leads to the creation of several shirt plays simultaneously.
Drama is a useful tool in cultural learning. A full semester’s work can be built around a drama project, or it can fill five or ten minutes at the beginning or end of a lesson. It encourages the learners to view the linguistic and cultural knowledge as a tool for communication rather than as an academic subject. It can bring life and vitality to the classroom.
(2) Classroom presentation
At the beginning of each lesson, teachers can hold a “cultural corner” sessions, with 5-10 minutes. Teachers or students can introduce one aspect of Western culture, such as famous events of foreign country in history, a prominent figure in the world, or some literary works. To accumulate the cultural knowledge for a long time, students’ cultural knowledge will naturally become broad and rich.
(3) Photo display
Use maps, photographs, and illustrations of the text to introduce relative cultural elements vividly. For instance, when we teach the States of Liberty which appears in the lesson 10 of junior English book3, at first we can display a wall chart of the Statue of Liberty in the United States in front of the classroom, then ask the students to identify it and then observe the Statue of Liberty carefully in the facial expressions, posture language, the hold-high arm and torch. And then teachers can introduce the following cultural background briefly: Batuoerdi, a French sculptor, builds U.S. Statue of Liberty. He takes his mother's face and his wife's body as models to manufacture it. The Goddess of Liberty not only has swallowed vicissitudes face, but also perseverance. The torch in her hand is a symbol of freedom shining all over the world. Then teachers can guide the students to make analysis of the understanding of American national spirit through the Statue of Liberty. Teachers also can allow the students to list their deepest impression in other countries or ethnic representation construction.
(4) Song appreciation
The important function of the songs is to express one’s wishes. Many lyrics and melody of songs are also full of rich cultural content. Students generally are interested in songs. If time is enough in the class, teachers can choose one or two representative English songs for students to appreciate or learn to sing. It is an effective method in the teaching of English cultural knowledge to analyze the content of the lyrics and music rhythm feelings. And then the students can accept the cultural baptism. For example, a song has a lyric like “Love is blue.”(Blue love). Then what representation is “blue” in English? It often expressed "frustration and anxiety". Teachers cited examples to analyze, and then asked students to appreciate this song, try to see if there are any new experiences.
(5) Foreign festivals on the campus
This activity is of great interest to young students. The celebration could take place in a class, a grade or the whole school with the help of the branch of the Youth League. All kinds of activities can be held in festivals, such as performance of foreign songs, dancing and dramas, holding costume parties, watching foreign films, attending lectures given by foreign experts and enjoying foreign food. By celebrating foreign festivals, learners will immerse in the target cultural context. Teachers are to give introduction on the origin and the conventional activities of the festival. A comparison of the similarities and differences between the foreign festivals and Chinese festivals can develop the learners’ cultural awareness.
(6) Using authentic materials
Obviously, the best way to learn foreign cultural background knowledge is to go to that country to stay there for a period of time. But we know that it is almost impossible to have such an opportunity, especially for our students. Therefore, it is practically necessary for the teachers to use authentic materials to teach culture.
Mass media, such as, film, novels and especially newspapers and magazines, is also considered as an insightful means for teaching culture, for they reflect people’s way of life in terms of variety contemporaneity and authenticity. Students in an ELF setting will spontaneously ask questions about puzzling aspects of society and life as reflected in the film or magazine. This material is by no means easy to interpret because there is so much central inference and it requires deep familiarity with and comprehensive exegeses of the culture in question. Therefore “all such material should be selected with an eye to the subculture diversity of the target community”.
5. Conclusion
Today, international cultural exchange is going on directly and indirectly, with its new scope, content, form and method unheard of before. To confine oneself to one’s own culture is to go against the times. Now, in our country, the open policy towards the rest of the world has become a fundamental policy. This policy has brought about much broader prospects for international cultural exchange. Therefore, overcoming cultural barriers has become more and more important. Only by surmounting the barriers can we get a high degree of cultural exchange, make use of good things from other cultures and build up our cultural and material wealth. This exchange will contribute to understanding and friendship among nations as well as development in science and culture.
In the practical teaching, the culture teaching should be presented as many detailed as possible in the teaching syllabus. The teaching materials should not be located only in the source culture and should be a constructive attempt to be explicit about intercultural behavior and communication, especially, in view of the limited language available at this level. Besides, in the classroom ELF oral teaching, teachers are expected to use a variety of teaching methods that are suitable to students’ level. In intercultural communication settings, Chinese learners in culture instruction should keep an open mind: we should try to avoid the prejudiced culture stereotypes over the other cultures and our own. Especially, we should put higher focus on the learning of our own Chinese culture. Another key point is becoming awareness of our own culture bottom lines. We must learn what our own culture line is ― the values where we are can negotiate, but we cannot compromise. We can allow others to be different, and respect their differences as they respect ours.
Though the culture teaching is a very complicated and difficult part to deal with, the educators and teachers involved in language education should make great efforts to carry out this part thoroughly. This determines much whether the effective cross-cultural communication can be preceded smoothly between China and the world.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Meng Dong, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Han Xiaoya, Shen Yin and many others.
And I also appreciate Li Neng, who offer me great help during the time I was in the practice in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. Without her help, I could not finish my survey in this paper.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
References
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AppendixⅠ
*Questionnaire:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in foreign language learning
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural competence are of equal importance
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on
6) You have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after graduation
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning ability and improve your cross-cultural skills
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on.
诚 信 承 诺
我谨在此承诺：本人所写的毕业论文《论中学英语口语教学中跨文化交际能力的培养》均系本人独立完成，没有抄袭行为，凡涉及其他作者的观点和材料，均作了注释，若有不实，后果由本人承担。
承诺人（签名）：
关键词： 中职语文教学 实践教学 口语交际能力培养
《中等职业学校语文教学大纲》明确指出：“根据校园生活、社会生活和职业生活确定活动内容……运用有关的语文知识和技能，提高语文应用能力，培养职业理想和职业情感。”因此，在中职语文实践教学中，教师要从实际出发设计实践教学内容，以明确的目标作为引导，在活动中渗透听、说、读、辩能力的培养。
一、注重突出实践活动的目标
从中职语文实践教学的现状来看，教学中依然存在“完成教学任务”的弊端，教师在组织实践教学时，没有突出学生综合实践能力的培养，注重形式而忽视学生实践技能的培养。实践活动重在对学生听、说、读、辩等实践能力的培养，而这些需要渗透到每一项实践活动中，因活动目标不明确，很多实践活动表面上看生动活泼，对学生的实践能力培养明显不够。因此，在中职语文实践活动中，教师要注重以明确的目标组织活动，针对性地培养学生的实践能力。
以“名家名篇”专题阅读实践活动为例，此类实践活动首先要激发学生对作家的兴趣，然后拓展到作品的阅读。要激发学生对作家的兴趣，那么，作者的生平、生活经历、小故事、创造历程等就是学生在阅读过程中所必须了解的。在了解过程中，教师应以什么样的方式进行引导呢？以作者的生平为例，是采用影视资料还是文字资料引导学生观察，或是通过小组合作探究方式引导学生自主选择自己喜欢的方式，这些都需要教师在实践教学中做好预设。
口语交际能力的培养不能孤立于听、读等活动之外。在上述案例中，教师确定具体的阅读专题内容后，提出阅读目标引导学生进行阅读，阅读后进行交流，这样才能让学生“有话可说，言之有理”。如在“鲁迅小说”阅读专题活动后，教师以“鲁迅小说中的人物形象归类”为活动主题，引导学生在读的基础上对鲁迅小说中的人物进行归类，在归类活动中培养学生的表达能力。
二、关注过程的实施
语文实践活动的重点是让学生在实践过程中亲身经历，强调活动过程中的体验生成和能力培养。实践活动以书本知识为基础，以生活为背景，以动手、动口、动脑等方式让学生亲身体验和操作，从而让学生在学中做、做中学、做中用，促进学生在知识与技能，过程与方法，情感态度与价值观等方面的全面发展。因此，在中职语文实践活动过程中，教师要注重在活动过程中渗透对学生口语交际能力的培养。
以“求职面试”实践活动为例，首先教师要组织学生对各类招聘信息进行收集整理，结合自己的专业和职业发展确定准备应聘的职位。在这个过程中，教师可模拟“招聘公司”，引导学生利用网络、实地考察等对公司和公司所设职位进行了解。然后过渡到招聘活动，这一过程的核心是求职者和招聘者的对话。在对话过程中，教师要注重引导学生及时了解招聘方的需求，结合自己的专业特点，从问候语、对方问题的回答策略等方面进行操练。又如“本土文化研究”的实践活动中关于“胡同文化”的研究，教师带领学生以实地考察为基本组织方式，带领学生游览、观看、感受相应的建筑，并通过摄影、摄像、走访等方式收集相关的民间典故、民俗文化、人文地理、历史变迁和风土人情等资料，然后在课堂上进行展示，共同对胡同的历史与文化进行追溯、思考和反问。通过这样的过程培养学生的观察能力、资料收集能力、语言表达能力，促进学生综合能力的培养。
三、整合听、说、读、辩等能力
口语交际能力和听、说、读、辩等能力是相互作用的，倾听是说的基础，读可较好地丰富表达内容，辩则可让表达更加具有逻辑性。但在中职语文实践教学中，教师只注重对学生说能力的培养，而忽视将几者结合起来，从而导致口语交际能力发展受阻。
首先，要注重将倾听和表达结合起来。无论是影视评论，还是举行会议，学生在活动中首先要学会倾听对方（或所提供材料）的主要观点，然后发表自己的观点，忽视了听，说就会显得空洞。要将二者有机结合，在实践活动中，教师不仅要从倾听的方法上引导学生，还要注重培养学生倾听的习惯。其次，要注重将读和说结合起来。表达过程是主体根据自己的已有经验和对材料（对方的言语）的理解而表达出自己的观点的过程。故而要提高学生的表达能力，实践教学中不仅要注重引导学生多读优秀文学作品，还要注重引导学生观察生活，从生活中汲取表达素材。最后，要注重将说和辩结合。要让学生在说的过程中做到条理清楚就必须掌握辩论方法。在语文实践教学中，教师可结合具体教学内容，引导学生从材料或情境出发，先分析材料或语境中的观点，然后寻找与之相对应的观点，进行辩论。
总之，在中职语文实践教学中，教师要注重从实际出发，关注学生实践能力的培养，在实践活动中以明确的目标为指导，渗透听、说、读、辩能力的培养，这样才能有效促进学生口语交际能力的提高。
参考文献：
[1]何美金.中职生语文口语交际能力的培养[J].厦门教育学院学报，2009（03）.
[2]左达.试论中职语文教学中学生口语交际能力的培养[J].科教导刊，2010（27）.
关键词：小学;低年级;语文教学;口语交际能力;培养策略
一、小学低年级语文教学中口语交际能力培养现状
（一）师生都不具备正确的口语交际能力培养观念
在2011年版的语文课程标准中就确立了交际教学的总目标，但是实际情况却是小学生的口语交际能力培养并没有取得明显的效果。这是因为通常情况下，小学语文考试试卷上都不会直接出现和口语交际方面相关的内容，因此教师会将大量的时间安排给考试内容的学习，口语交际的教学基本上形同虚设。另外，还有部分教师偏面的认为口语交际训练是要在专门的口语交际课上进行，阅读教学的重点应该是字词的讲解和文章的理解。所以，我们急需更新口语交际能力的培养观念。
（二）关于口语交际能力的培养不具备有效的手段
怎样在阅读的课堂上对学生进行口语交际训练是现在许多教师都在思考的问题，在小学语文阅读教学中，教师通常都会运用朗读、复述等的方式训练学生的口语交际能力。虽然说这样的方式可以达到训练学生听说能力的目的，但是此方式并不适用，交际性不强。究其根本，还是因为大部分教师对训练口语交际的方式并不了解，更不用谈及其使用情况，这成为导致学生对口语交际缺乏兴趣的重要原因之一。
（三）缺乏行之有效的评r
对于口语交际评价，2011版语文课程标准中已有过规定，需要注重提升学生对口语交际的认识与表达沟通的水平，考察口语交际水平的基本项目包括即席讲话、主题演讲以及问题讨论等。但是，就目前而言，小学语文考试中只是比较注重对字音字形的掌握、阅读理解能力和写作能力等的考察，对口语交际能力的评价通常都比较随意，很缺乏一定标准的口头评价。这是因为大部分的教师都认为这项能力考试中不考，而且学生的母语就是汉语，不用费神去学，实际教学中教师怕教、学生厌学的现象很明显。
二、小学低年级语文教学中口语交际能力培养策略
（一）转变观念，重视阅读教学中口语交际能力的培养
1.一定要转变为考试而教的观念。“看拼音写词语”、“写出近义词反义词”、“阅读理解”等是小学语文试卷中常见的题型，因为试题中重点考查的是字形、字音、字义的掌握和对句子、文章的理解，所以通常情况下都不会直接出现考查口语交际方面的内容。所以，教师在阅读教学过程中会下意识地大幅度缩减口语交际训练的内容，甚至有的教师会将焦点全部放在字词的讲解和文章的理解上，基本上对口语交际教学保持的是忽略的态度。
2.改变之前分模块教学的观念。在小学语文教材中，每个单元的《语文园地》中都有专门的“口语交际”内容，这导致不少语文教师都认为口语交际训练只是局限在口语交际课上，和阅读教学没有什么密切的联系。因此，在语文阅读教学中经常可以出现这样的情况：教师仅仅关注词语、句子的讲解和段落大意以及中心思想的归纳，通常情况下是教师讲得绘声绘色，学生却听得无精打采，总结整个阅读教学过程即教师单方面在唱着“独角戏”。这样的教学观念是不可取的。在语文阅读教学中，教师要积极引导学生认真思考问题，而且还要给他们营造相互交流、讨论的环境，鼓励学生提出自己的想法。学生在讨论交流、提出观点的过程中口语交际能力也能得到充分的锻炼。
（二）探索并丰富口语交际能力培养的途径
1.情景对话、表演。小学语文教材中有许多的对话内容，因为教材中收集的都是童真童趣的文章，无论是童话还是寓言故事都是有人物或者是拟人化的角色活动的。教师可以依托文本，创设出情境，让学生扮演其中的角色，分小组进行模拟对话训练，确保学生能够在模拟对话的过程中，受到典范语言的影响。长期坚持下去，可以帮助学生实现语言的感悟、内化和迁移，自身的语言感知和运用能力也可以增强。
2.讨论辩论。教师在小学语文阅读教学中要巧设“讨论环节”，鼓励发言者要将自己的个人观点清晰地呈现给小组的其他成员，小组的剩余成员还可以在发言者阐述观点的基础上提出自己的看法和观点，无论是赞成的还是反对的都能促进学生的进步，循序渐进，不断增强学生的口语交际能力。
（三）采取有效的评价措施
运用笔试法和口试法相结合的方式。为了更好地保证小学语文阅读教学中口语交际能力培养的全面真实进行，我们可以在教学中采用笔试法和口试法相结合的方式，确保我们的评价能够起到其本该有的作用。对于笔试的设计，首先可以引起师生对口语交际训练的重视，下意识地在教学中增加口语交际训练的比重;其次，可以从知识和技能的角度对学生的口语交际水平进行考查。口试主要是对学生基本倾听、表达和交流能力的考察，方式比较多，常见的有问答法、复述法、看图说话等等，通过这些方法教师可以当面对学生的口语交际水平进行考查。
参考文献：
